"It really is a nice theory. The only defect I think it has is probably common to all philosophical theories. It's wrong." ---- Saul Kripke
2008年6月27日星期五
“Plain Sex”筆記
1 目標:
1.1 反對“means-separable-end”對性的觀點.
1.2 解釋性不必然是什麼.
1.2.1 My preliminary analysis is meant to serve as a contrast to what sex is not, at least, not necessarily.[1]
1.3 Traditional writings were correct to emphasize the purely physical or animal aspect of sex; they were wrong only in condemning it.[2]
1.4 証明任何嘗試把性活動與道德掛鈎的理論都是錯的.
1.4.1 Any analysis of sex which imputes a moral character to sex acts in themselves is wrong for that reason.[3]
1.5 沒有所謂性變態的活動.
2 何謂means-separable-end(MSE)?
2.1 MSE把性活動看待成達成其他欲望的手段.倘若沒有了其他活動的作為性活動的目的,那麼性活動本身便是沒有價值的.[4]
2.1.1 其他欲望:
2.1.1.1 生育
2.1.1.2 表達愛意
2.1.1.3 表達互相的關顧
3 何謂性欲望?
3.1 一個行動者如果他有一個正常的性欲望,他最少必須要欲求與某一個特定的人有身體接觸,而他亦企圖在該身體接觸中獲得快感.
3.1.1 …I will begin is that sexual desire is desire for contact with another person’s body and for the pleasure which such contact produces; …[5]
3.1.2 The desire for physical contact with another person is a minimal criterion for (normal) sexual desire, but is both necessary and sufficient to qualify normal desire as sexual.[6]
3.2 釐清:
3.2.1 性活動的身體接觸不等如其他活動(如球類活動)的身體接觸.因為球類活動目的是爭勝.爭勝是性活動不帶有的.[7]
3.3 但這個釐清是不全面的.與其說(正常的)性活動不如球類活動般帶有爭勝心,倒不如說(正常的)性活動不具備球賽規則.
3.4 在正常情況下,性活動的媒介是身體,主要是性器官的接觸.所以,(正常)性活動是帶有特定規則的.我們不能否定,有些性變態的人,他們就是企圖藉球賽產生快感.因為性變態的人所持的性行為規則,不同於一般人.
3.5 更強的反對:
3.5.1 有些情侶可以視舞蹈活動為性活動前奏.Goldman的釐清解決不了這一點.
4 MSE的困難
4.1 MSE不能為人帶來一致的理論.例如,有些教會反對一切不以生育為目標的性行為,他們以此理據反對同性戀及口交,但他們卻不對親吻和愛撫.[8]
4.2 當作者表明反對MSE時,他只是表明否定把性欲望的正當性僅僅地歸因於達成其他欲望欲,而不是反對把性活動當作手段.性欲望或性活動既可以是手段,也可以是目的,也可以兩者兼備.
4.3 生育論的困難:
4.3.1 Nature’s purpose & Human purpose
4.3.1.1 性雖然帶有生育的功能,但生育功能只是nature’s purpose,而不是human purpose.[9]
4.3.1.2 避孕科技和人工受孕科技亦漸漸將生育功能性活動脫鈎.
4.4 溝通論的困難:
4.4.1 一:
性不是唯一表達愛意的方法.人類沒有理由把性看待為表達關愛的唯一車乘.
4.4.2 二:
就算沒有表達愛意的性行為,也可以是一次良好的性行為.[10]
4.4.3 三:
倘若我們把性與愛混為一談,那麼人類便很容易誤會發生性行為就等同愛一個人.
4.4.3.1 性慾和愛欲似乎有不一致的要求.一方面性慾要求人多元化,但另一邊廂愛欲卻要求人專一或排他.[11]
4.4.3.2 語意上,人類沒有casual love,只有casual sex.因為love本身就帶有「認真地」這意義.[12]
4.4.4 四:
性活動不僅是一堆規則、肢體活體和身體語言[13],它本身就是會產生快感的.一般而言,身體語言並不會產生快感.而身體語言只是工具.
4.4.4.1 ...; if better sex is more successful communication by means of a more skillful use of body language, then we had all better be well schooled in the vocabulary and grammar.[14](這句抵死對爆!)
4.5 互相覺察論:
4.5.1 這是溝通論的另一個版本,由Nagel提出.
4.5.2 互相覺察論提出一個性活動是雙方互相牽動亦留意得到對方的意圖的活動.
4.5.3 Negal認為一個正常的性行必須要互相覺察對方所進行的誘惑,再要被這覺察的處境牽動出高一層之的誘惑.在這種誘惑下物化對也是在互相明白且確認對方的主體性下進行的.換句話說,這種物化也是出於主體的意願,而且有類近合約形式的限制,暫時互相把自我交給性伴侶.
4.5.3.1 (屌!誰會這樣做愛呢?咁樣諗一諗,仲邊有mood?去讀哲學書好過啦~~)倘若性活動真的如此,當我們讀到Negal的述描時,理應有性興奮才對.但我敢保證,因這描述而有性興奮的人,絕對是一個性變態的人.
4.5.4 困難:
4.5.4.1 但似乎這理論只適用於一些很複雜的智性誘惑過程,而不常適用於性活動.
4.5.4.2 這似乎把性活過度地智性化.
4.6 保育小孩論的困難:
4.6.1 保育小孩論認為,緊密的家庭關係有助保護小孩的成長.故此,非多元的愛和非多元的性,可以強化一個家庭的關係.
4.6.2 但多元化的性不見得一定會弱化家庭關係.公開地認同婚外性行為或無愛性行為,也可以保障強化一個家庭關係.因為這可以被免伴侶因性慾而放棄恆久的愛欲關係.
5 性慾是低級的和獸性的
5.1 這種想法是由Platonic-Christian的思想傳統而來的.
5.2 有認為一但人類的承認和接受性慾是動物性的,那便會做成性氾濫的局面.
5.3 但明顯,就算是動物也不會如此濫交和獸性.[15]
5.4 這種想法忽略了性慾亦並不是任意的.就算人有如動物一般的性慾,也不代表人類不會仔細地選擇性伴侶和仔細管理性行為.
6 性與道德
6.1 性活動就如商業活動一樣,本身並不是一個道德課題.某些與性活動或性慾有關的不道德活動之所以是不道德,是因為它犯下了人類的道德要求,而不是因為該活動與性有關.
6.1.1 例如:強姦是不道德的,不是因為強姦是性活動,而是因為強姦犯剝削了受害者的專嚴和權利.[16]
6.1.2 例如:兒童性騷擾是不道德的,亦可能可以不是因為性活動本身,而是因為帶有地位不平等的控制活動.如兒童比較天真易受成年人控制;而過早的性生活通常會為兒童帶來負面影響等.
6.2 在哪些理論下,性活動才與道德課題有較大的關係?
6.2.1 效益主義進路:
6.2.1.1 性行為通常會帶來強烈的快感.
6.2.1.2 如果我們以效益主義來看,性活動便是道德上應該實踐的.
6.2.1.3 但這明顯有問題,因為我們不是有責任去滿足任何人的性慾.
6.2.2 康德式的進路:
6.2.2.1 性將會變成不道德的,因為性活當中將不能被免在某程度上控制對方的身體或思想.
6.2.2.1.1 例如:誘惑對方.
6.2.2.2 或更學究地說,在性活動當中,我們有可能於某時刻當中,把性伴侶僅僅常作工具或手段,企圖藉此滿足慾望.
6.2.2.3 當然,只要相方同意,又不是「僅僅」把對手常成功具,確認對方的主體性,便應該沒有問題.
7 何謂性反常或變態(perversion)?
7.1 有.
7.2 作何能夠談及norms的活動,都可以有反常態生發.
7.3 statistically unusual & evaluative abnormal
7.4 但性反常只帶有統計學上的意味,即statistically unusual,不是abnormal.[17]
7.4.1 例如:嘉藤鷹金槍不倒,每次可以做愛三小時.這是statistically unusual.
7.5 很多時,人類亦把性反常與不道德聯上關係.但這是沒有理由的.如有時反常的性行為可帶來更大的性快感一樣,性變態的行為也不一定比正常行更不道德.
7.5.1 例如:強姦一隻羊是比強姦一個人較為道德,只少由效益主義的角度看.
8 repetitive pleasure & cumulative pleasure
8.1 性似乎只能為人帶來repetitive pleasure.
8.2 性快感的短暫性和強烈性是掛釣的.
8.3 亦由於它的短暫,令我們很少把性放在人生計劃的重要位置.
9 好句:
9.1 The briefness of the pleasures contributes to their intensity (or perhaps their intensity makes them necessarily brief), …[18]
9.2 Sex affords us a paradigm of pleasure, but not a cornerstone of value.[19]
9.3 The romanticization of sex and the confusion of sexual desire with love operate in both directions: sex outside the context of romantic love is repressed; once it is repressed, partners become more difficult to find and sex becomes romanticized further, out of proportion to its real value for the individual.[20]
[1] P76.7
[2] P76.10
[3] P84.7
[4] P74.4
[5] P74.6
[6] P75.3
[7] P75.7
[8] P78.5
[9] P77.4
[10] P78.9
[11] P79.3
[12] P79.4
[13] 這是Robert C. Solomon的理解.他把性行為比喻作身體語言.
[14] P81.8
[15] P80.5
[16] P85.9
[17] P88.10
[18] P88.3
[19] P87.9
[20] P83.9
2008年2月15日星期五
對話 30-10-2007
終於都比我見到! 幽靈先生. 請問你是哪種方式存在? 你還會死多一次嗎? 之後又會又邊?
幽靈:
妖!我點知答案呀! 你又以哪種方式存在吖? 我又點會知做鬼"死了", 會再去邊?! 屌你老味! 都未遇過人見鬼都咁多問題. 大佬, 你見鬼呀! 你估你見到蘇格拉底呀! 比少少反應當交差, 好嗎?
對話 27-11-2007
你知嗎, UST全名應是什麼嗎?
男:
?
女:
University of Stress and Tension. 這裡的工作壓力實在太大.
男:
又不用那麼悲觀. 不如替科大改個法文名, 可能更好.
女:
?
男:
Le Université of Stress and Tension.
女:
和英文有什麼分別?
男:
分別可大了. 縮寫後, 不是UST, 而是L'UST. 大家happy.
對話 30-11-2007
女 :
你看, 這篇文章把男人比喻成兩種.
男:
哪兩種?
女:
雜誌; 文學.
男:
有什麼分別?
女:
雜誌的, 天天新鮮, 但內容膚淺, 只宜談戀愛, 不宜談終身; 文學的, 則正好相反.
男:
哪你喜看雜誌或是文學?
女:
最好當然是先多看"雜誌", 然後才與"文學"訂終身.
男:
噢...你看雜誌多了, 語文能力下降, 文學, 你只能看熱鬧, 不能看乾坤.
女:
這只是你們男生的妒忌. 男生的閱讀能力都比女生低呢~
男:
對. 所以男的只看紙的品質, 不讀字. 不論是雜誌或文學, 紙舊了都發黃. 有什麼好妒忌. (妳的時間不多了, 對嗎?)
2007年11月27日星期二
Freedom within Reason 筆記
Source:
Susan Wolf, (2005) “Freedom within Reason”, Personal Autonomy: New Essays on Personal Autonomy and Its Role in Contemporary Moral Philosophy, James Stacey Taylor (eds.), (
1 主要目標:
1.1 論証人需要為自己的行負責,不一定須要假設人有自由意志.
1.1.1 We have reason to hope, that is, that the metaphysical truth about the world and our relation to it is not such as to imply that we are not responsible beings.[1]
1.2 解釋三種討論“責任”之基礎及其來源的觀點:Autonomy View,Real Self View和Reason View.
2 傳統觀點中的憂慮:
2.1 要為Freewill辨護,似乎一直是一個艱鉅的難題.不只是現代,其實由古至今,對於人有否自由意志這課題,我們總是悲觀的.Wolf舉出了三個常見的版本,它分別是與自由意志不相容的理論或想法.
2.1.1 Free will seems to be threatened not only by what may be called divine determinism, but also psychological determinism – that is, by the view of human psychology that holds that one’s interests and beliefs and values, and consequently one’s decisions for action, are wholly a product of one’s heredity and environment. Moreover, […] agents whose thoughts, desires, and wills are effective in guiding our behavior can called into question by the scientific perspective that views human beings as wholly physical creatures, […], can be completely explained in terms of the interaction of atomic or subatomic particles. [2](粗體為筆者所加.)這三個版本即是:有神論,心理學和物理學.
2.2 為何怕喪失自由意志:
2.2.1 由於我們常常假設了人有自由意志,所以,喪失自由意志將使人類的生活彷彿變成幻像.
2.2.1.1 …in ordinary day-to-day life we assume that we do have free will, and the recognition that we might be wrong about this would imply that we are living an illusion.[3]
2.2.2 再者,我們也害怕面對,我們其實不能掌握生命,喪失對行動的決定權.
2.2.2.1 They fear the absence of power and of ultimate control.[4]
2.2.3 但Wolf最擔心的是責任課題.喪失自由意志似乎會使行動者不能再為他的行為負責.
2.2.3.1 My own concern, […], has to do with issues of responsibility.[5]
3 Autonomy View(自主觀)
3.1 總之,我們認為人有自由意志,就可以“自己話事”.這種想法與“自律”(autonomy)的觀點有關.我們似乎直覺地認同,對一個自律的行為,我們才能談及責任.
3.2 什麼是autonomy
3.2.1 For autonomy requires that our actions be governed by our selves and that our selves not be governed by anything beyond our control.[6]
3.3 困難一(與經驗不乎):
3.3.1 就算是自律的行動者,也很難避免受外在因素影響行動.
3.3.1.1 Though the factors that shape who are and what we value, and consequently that shape how we respond to the circumstances that confronts, […], it is plausible that such factors are always operative nonetheless, calling into doubt the assumption that even the strongest candidates for autonomous action really are as autonomous as they appear.[7]
3.3.2 在德道運氣的課題中,我們也會面對這種擔憂.似乎(除了被人拿鎗指頭之外,)大部份的行動也是有行動者的背景的.我們很難明確地分辨背景對人的行動的影響.
3.4 困難二:
3.4.1 就算我們有自由意志,是自律的個體,又何以見得因為能夠自律,就要負責任?
3.4.1.1 But if being autonomous means that instead on one’s self being a product of external forces, one’s self is a spontaneous, undetermined entity, it is hard to see why one should be any more responsible for the decisions, choices, and actions that flow out of that.[8]
4 Real Self View(真我觀)
4.1 由於自由意志並不能解決責任的難題,我們可以轉移到Real Self View,即我們把責任的基礎來滅歸結於行動者是否真確地認同自己的行為.
4.2 The kind of freedom necessary for responsibility, it might be suggested, is the freedom to do what one really wants – that is, the freedom to do what one’s core, deep, or real self wants, which may be different from what one’s strongest desires would urge upon one.[9]
4.3 換句話說,我們把行動者的責任歸結於行動者是否真誠地認同兼且認為其行為是有價值的.
4.4 即倘若行動者對其他動有第二序欲望,我們便可以對其提出責任要求.
4.4.1 (A pref ~A) pref (~A pref A)
4.5 困難:
4.5.1 就算一個行動是行動者的自我認同的行為,也不足以一定證明行者須要為其行動負責.因為,雖然行動者可以是自願的,也不一定是有得選擇.
4.5.1.1 例如:電影《紫雨風暴》(1999)中的吳彥祖的角色(多特),他是一個自小便被赤柬收養,並訓練成遊擊隊隊員的人.他沒有其他選擇,他一定要成為赤柬,而他認同他是赤柬遊擊隊的身份.
4.5.1.2 又例如:一個種族者主義者,可能是因為他的成長背景使沒有不成為種族主義者的可能性.[10]
4.5.1.3 這例子同樣可以用於納粹主義者等.
4.5.2 就算是第二序欲望也不一定是獨立自主的.一個人的第二序欲望、意願或價值取向,都可以受環境或受因果律則影響的.
4.5.2.1 In fact, the man’s racist values are part of his real self. […] For although these activity are governed by his values, his life … had no room in it for questioning, for coming to see the reasons why racism is wrong. He didn’t have a chance to not be a racist, and so it seems unfair to blame him for acting out and expressing a racism he had no choice but to have.[11]
4.5.2.2 I believe that suggestion (RSV) is mistaken. There is no such ultrareal or superdeep self, independent of all external influences, arising from nothing; and even if there were, it is hard to see why a being with such a self would be any more responsible than a being without it.[12]
5 Wolf的版本:Reason View(理據觀):惡行免責論
5.1 似乎,就算是RSV也會面對一個AV的要求.如果一個RSV不是獨立真誠地自主,我們亦會十分懷疑這個RSV的責任.如果RSV不比AV好.我們似乎對一個兩難.我們以乎要退回AV.
5.2 不過,Susan Wolf認為:我們不能要求行動者對其行動負責,亦不可以怪責.
5.2.1 Reflecting on the supposition that they could not help but have those values, then, inclines us to exempt them not just of responsibility, but of blame.[13]
5.2.2 It might be noted that when we look at cases of bad-acting agents, our tendency to exempt them from responsibility (and thus from blame) rests heavily on our imagining cases in which it is posited that the agent could not but have become vicious or disturbed.[14](粗體為筆者所加.)
5.3 相反,行善的人則可以擔起他們的善行的責任,接受贊賞.
5.3.1 We do not exempt the good acting agent because we covertly, perhaps even unconsciously, imagine the agent as one who was encouraged by good influences, but who was not compelled to become good. Rather, we assume that decision to accept these influences was more truly up to him.[15](粗體為筆者所加.)
5.3.2 當然,我們可見Wolf所指的“truly”,不一定指“真實地”,而是“assumed as if truth”,即“假設/看待成真”
6 釐清:
6.1 Disanalogy between good-acting and bad-acting
6.1.1 Wolf好在意這個概念.因為她認為這是她的Reason View的核心.
6.1.1.1 The development of my view about responsibility laid stress on a disanalogy between good-acting and bad-acting agents.[16]
6.1.2 何謂“disanalogy”?
6.1.2.1 …the disanalogy is quite specific: It is that a good-acting agent may have been irresistibly drawn to accept good values as a result of the exercise of good reason, whereas this can never be said of the agent who acts in a blameworthy way.[17]
6.1.2.2 換句話說,責任的基礎就是來自“理據”.
6.1.3 她舉出了一些處境,幫助闡明,指出一個行善的人,其實是有機會不值得被贊賞或怪責.一個行惡的人,亦不一定不須要負責.
6.1.3.1 例如:If a person acts badly despite his ability to appreciate the reasons for acting better, then he is fully responsible and blameworthy for his choice.[18]
6.1.3.2 但筆者認為,這可能性和她的理論有不一致的地方.因為她似乎認為我們沒有理由可以行惡.所有的惡行都是因為不了解和缺乏選擇的結果.因為我們總可以把行惡者描述成受環境限制.
6.1.3.2.1 所以她在“If a person […] for his choice. [19]”這句之前,加上一句:“But it is a real and difficult question how often such cases occur.[20]”
6.1.3.2.2 亦有這句:But if a man irresistibly led to affirm bad values, this can only be because he was deprived of the ability to appreciate the reasons why those values are bad.[21]
6.1.3.2.3 換句話說,她自己很懷疑我們能否有效証明一個人可以充份地、了解地和可選擇地行惡.
6.1.3.3 真相究竟是如何,則可能要返回自由意志的討論.但不論形上真相為何,我們都可以贊同Wolf的觀點.
6.2 Reason View的精神在於把責任的基礎歸結為規範性和指導性的概念,而不是一個形上理論的結果:the difference between responsible and nonresponsible agents is not fundamentally metaphysical – it is normative. What we need in order to be responsible is not the power to form and revise our values independently of the world, but rather the power to form and revise our values well rather than badly, in light of an understanding of the world and of what is important and worthwhile in it.[22](粗體為筆者所加.)
7 問題及回應:
7.1 一:
7.1.1 與其說RSV中的Real是等同“真我”.倒不如說Real Self是Ideal Self“理想我”或Role model“典範我”,因為Wolf在論証中,隱含了她對人性的觀點.如中國哲學一樣,她似乎認為人是必須亦必然是性善的.要不然,為惡的行動者都必然不是以受他的真我驅使以行惡.她一早就排除了人是性惡的可能性.所以她亦說這是“heavily on our imaging cases”.
7.1.1.1 …, we imagined people who could not but have acquired bad values or false beliefs and so could not but have made bad decisions on the basis of them.[23] (粗體為筆者所加.)
7.1.1.2 We do not exempt the good acting agent because we covertly, perhaps even unconsciously, imagine the agent as one who was encouraged by good influences, but who was not compelled to become good. Rather, we assume that decision to accept these influences was more truly up to him.[24] (粗體為筆者所加.)
7.1.2 可見她很想保護日常直覺:認為人是(最少是傾向)善的.
7.1.3 當然,說她與中國哲學可相通,可能言之過早.我們亦可以說她的理論,與亞里士多德的perfectionism相通.不過,大致上,不論是Wolf,Aristotle或者是各儒者,都是向共同目標進發──為人確立行善的基礎及方向.
7.1.4 倘若她的論點是發生在一個邪惡的可能世界,我們可以對她構想的種族主義者,給予另一翻的描述.
7.2 二:
7.2.1 不過,她的觀點有一個好處.我們對待惡行時,可以更寬宏.因為我們總是可以認為惡行是身不由己.[25]行惡的人是需要幫助,而不是需要被怪責.
7.2.2 蘇格拉底把惡行看待成如無知的行為;而Wolf則把惡行看待成身不由己的行為.兩者均重視啟導和教化,多於怪責.這種扶持他人的精神是一種比較正面的和關懷的精神.
7.3 三:
7.3.1 Wolf的觀點其實可以有利把責任轉變成一個程度性的概念,這亦脗合我們的日常經驗.例如:蜘蛛俠中常常有句“能力越大,責任越大”.而我們日常亦彷彿認為聖賢有需要開化民智,就如父母有需要教育子女明白做人道理.
7.3.2 如果我們僅以AV來劃定責任,我們便很大機會使責任變成非有即無的概念.要麼行動者有自由意志,所以要為一切自律行為負上全面的責任;要麼行動者沒有自由意志,所以對其行動可以全不負責.
7.3.3 相反,Wolf的理論則可以同時考慮行動的處境和自身信念.如果行動者有很合理的理由和充分地了解處境,他則有較大的責任.如果行動者受環境的影響較多,或對自我的欲望及信念理解較少,他則有較少的責任.
7.3.4 這亦可以幫助我們理解,當我們怪責他們逃避責任時,為何往往我們是在怪責他人故意地不去了解他應所了解的處境.
7.3.5 她似乎亦會贊同這個理解:The more we are able to understand and correctly and sensitively evaluate our world, the more responsible we are able to be in acting within and upon it.[26]
7.4 倘若天命不能違.由不朽的觀看,命運總是播弄或特別照顧某些人,使他們對生命有更多的了解,擁有更大的責任.由有朽的觀看,有人類會努力獲得更多的自由,肩負更多的責任;亦有人認為自由是“生命中不能承受之輕”,努力逃避責任.
[1] P259.9
[2] P258.5 – 258.7
[3] P258.10 – 258.1
[4] P259.3
[5] P259.4
[6] P261.5
[7] P261.7
[8] P262.2
[9] P265.4
[10] Wolf於文章中的例子.
[11] P266.4 – 266.5
[12] P269.3
[13] P267.7
[14] P268.6
[15] P268.10 – 269.1
[16] P271.4
[17] P271.9
[18] P272.6
[19] P272.6
[20] P272.5
[21] P271.10 – 272.1
[22] P273.6
[23] P272.5
[24] P268.10 – 269.1
[25] 換了筆者的語言:“我們總可以說某人行惡,是因為他有心理鬱結,而非自願,亦非能自控的.”
[26] P274.3